What are the ideas of enlightenment? The main ideas of the era of enlightenment. Years of the Age of Enlightenment

Enlightenment in Europe called the ideological movement among the educated part of the European population in the second half of the 17th - 18th centuries. The main ideas of the Enlightenment were:

The idea of humanism, the natural right of every person to recognition of the value of his personality, to happiness. A person is valuable regardless of his origin, nationality, race.

Condemnation of social inequality of people, exploitation of man by man. Anti-feudal sentiments.

The idea of restructuring society on the basis of reason and science. Reason for the enlighteners is an active instrument of transformation, and not a passive receptacle of ideally correct knowledge given by God, as the classicists viewed it.

Criticism of the church, religious prohibitions and prejudices, critical revision of generally accepted spiritual and intellectual values.

Condemnation of political tyranny.

- The idea of enlightened absolutism- rulers of countries should take care of the development of science and education among the population (“the union of kings and philosophy”)

Enlightenment in literature made an invaluable contribution to the development of such a genre as the novel. The genres of the European philosophical novel and drama were founded precisely by the Enlightenment. At the center of literary works written by educators is the image of an intellectual hero, often a figure in art or science, who seeks to reform the world or fights for a worthy place in life. The works of educators are filled with propaganda of reading books and education. The characters express the author's ideas for a better structure of society. Authors often present voluminous discussions of their characters, their correspondence about problems of economics, aesthetics, religion and church, politics, pedagogy, etc.

Outstanding representatives of the Enlightenment in literature: Voltaire, Charles Louis de Montesquieu, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Oliver Goldsmith, Mikhail Lomonosov, Grigory2 Skovoroda.

TO cultural values of the Enlightenment This includes the rapid proliferation of newspapers, the beginning of the publication of magazines and encyclopedias, and the emergence of social clubs where debates on important social issues took place. These are academies, scientific societies, Masonic lodges, circles, secular and artistic salons and cafes.

THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT Enlightenment, intellectual and spiritual movement of the late 17th and early 19th centuries. in Europe and North America. It was a natural continuation of the humanism of the Renaissance and the rationalism of the early modern era, which laid the foundations of the enlightenment worldview: the rejection of a religious worldview and an appeal to reason as the only criterion for knowledge of man and society. The name was fixed after the publication of I. Kant’s article Answer to the question: what is Enlightenment?(1784). The root word “light,” from which the term “enlightenment” comes (English: Enlightenment; French: Les Lumières; German: Aufklärung; Italian: Illuminismo), goes back to an ancient religious tradition, enshrined in both the Old and New Testaments. This is the Creator’s separation of light from darkness, and the definition of God himself as Light. Christianization itself implies the enlightenment of humanity with the light of the teachings of Christ. Rethinking this image, the enlighteners put a new understanding into it, talking about the enlightenment of man with the light of reason

The Enlightenment originated in England at the end of the 17th century. in the writings of its founder D. Locke (1632–1704) and his followers G. Bolingbroke (1678–1751), D. Addison (1672–1719), A. E. Shaftesbury (1671–1713), F. Hutcheson (1694– 1747) the basic concepts of enlightenment teaching were formulated: “common good”, “natural man”, “natural law”, “natural religion”, “social contract”. In the doctrine of natural law, set forth in Two treatises on government(1690) D. Locke, fundamental human rights are substantiated: freedom, equality, inviolability of person and property, which are natural, eternal and inalienable. People need to voluntarily enter into a social contract, on the basis of which a body (state) is created to ensure the protection of their rights. The concept of a social contract was one of the fundamental ones in the doctrine of society developed by the figures of the early English Enlightenment.

In the 18th century, France became the center of the educational movement. At the first stage of the French Enlightenment, the main figures were S. L. Montesquieu (1689–1755) and Voltaire (F. M. Arouet, 1694–1778). In the works of Montesquieu, Locke's doctrine of the rule of law was further developed. In the treatise About the spirit of laws(1748) the principle of separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial was formulated. IN Persian letters(1721) Montesquieu outlined the path that French educational thought was to take with its cult of the reasonable and natural. However, Voltaire held different political views. He was an ideologist of enlightened absolutism and sought to instill the ideas of the Enlightenment in the monarchs of Europe (service with Frederick II, correspondence with Catherine II). He was distinguished by his clearly expressed anti-clerical activities, opposed religious fanaticism and hypocrisy, church dogmatism and the supremacy of the church over the state and society. The writer’s work is diverse in themes and genres: anti-clerical works Virgin of Orleans (1735), Fanaticism, or Prophet Mohammed(1742); philosophical stories Candide, or Optimism (1759), Simple-minded(1767); tragedy Brutus (1731), Tancred (1761); Philosophical letters (1733).

In the second stage of the French Enlightenment, the main role was played by Diderot (1713–1784) and the encyclopedists. Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts, 1751–1780 became the first scientific encyclopedia, which presented basic concepts in the fields of physical and mathematical sciences, natural sciences, economics, politics, engineering and art. In most cases, the articles were thorough and reflected the latest state of knowledge. Inspirers and editors Encyclopedias Diderot and J. D'Alembert (1717–1783) appeared; Voltaire, Condillac, Helvetius, Holbach, Montesquieu, Rousseau took an active part in its creation. Articles on specific areas of knowledge were written by professionals - scientists, writers, engineers.

The third period brought forward the figure of J.-J. Rousseau (1712–1778). He became the most prominent popularizer of the ideas of the Enlightenment, introducing elements of sensitivity and eloquent pathos into the rationalistic prose of the Enlightenment. Rousseau proposed his own way of political structure of society. In the treatise On the Social Contract, or Principles of Political Law(1762) he put forward the idea of popular sovereignty. According to it, the government receives power from the hands of the people in the form of an order, which it is obliged to carry out in accordance with the will of the people. If it violates this will, then the people can limit, modify or take away the power given to them. One means of such a return of power could be the violent overthrow of the government. Rousseau's ideas found their further development in the theory and practice of the ideologists of the Great French Revolution.

The period of the late Enlightenment (late 18th - early 19th centuries) is associated with the countries of Eastern Europe, Russia and Germany. German literature and philosophical thought gave new impetus to the Enlightenment. German enlighteners were the spiritual successors of the ideas of English and French thinkers, but in their writings they were transformed and took on a deeply national character. The originality of the national culture and language was asserted by I.G. Herder (1744–1803). His main work Ideas for the philosophy of human history(1784–1791) became the first thorough classical work with which Germany entered the arena of world historical and philosophical science. The work of many German writers was in tune with the philosophical quest of the European Enlightenment. The pinnacle of the German Enlightenment, which gained worldwide fame, were such works as Robbers (1781), Deceit and love (1784), Wallenstein (1799), Mary Stuart(1801) F. Schiller (1759–1805), Emilia Galotti, Nathan the Wise G.E. Lessing (1729–1781) and especially Faust(1808–1832) I.-V. Goethe(1749–1832). The philosophers G. W. Leibniz (1646–1716) and I. Kant (1724–1804) played an important role in the formation of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The idea of progress, traditional for the Enlightenment, was developed in Critique of Pure Reason I. Kant (1724–1804), who became the founder of German classical philosophy.

Throughout the development of the Enlightenment, the concept of “reason” was at the center of the thinking of its ideologists. Reason, in the view of the Enlightenment, gives a person an understanding of both the social structure and himself. Both can be changed for the better, can be improved. In this way, the idea of progress was substantiated, which was conceived as the irreversible course of history from the darkness of ignorance to the kingdom of reason. Scientific knowledge was considered the highest and most productive form of activity of the mind. It was during this era that sea travel acquired a systematic and scientific character. Geographical discoveries in the Pacific Ocean (Easter Islands, Tahiti and Hawaii, east coast of Australia) J. Roggeveen (1659–1729), D. Cook (1728–1779), L.A. Bougainville (1729–1811), J. F. La Perouse (1741–1788) laid the foundation for the systematic study and practical development of this region, which stimulated the development of natural sciences. C. Linnaeus (1707–1778) made a great contribution to botany. In progress Plant species(1737) he described thousands of species of flora and fauna and gave them double Latin names. J.L. Buffon (1707–1788) introduced the term “biology” into scientific circulation, denoting the “science of life”. S. Lamarck (1744–1829) put forward the first theory of evolution. In mathematics, I. Newton (1642–1727) and G. W. Leibniz (1646–1716) almost simultaneously discovered differential and integral calculus. The development of mathematical analysis was promoted by L. Lagrange (1736–1813) and L. Euler (1707–1783). The founder of modern chemistry, A.L. Lavoisier (1743–1794), compiled the first list of chemical elements. A characteristic feature of the scientific thought of the Enlightenment was that it was focused on the practical use of scientific achievements in the interests of industrial and social development.

The task of educating the people, which the educators set for themselves, required careful attention to issues of upbringing and education. Hence - a strong didactic principle, manifested not only in scientific treatises, but also in literature. As a true pragmatist, who attached great importance to those disciplines that were necessary for the development of industry and trade, D. Locke spoke in his treatise Thoughts on parenting(1693). A novel of education can be called The Life and Amazing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe(1719) D. Defoe (1660–1731). It presented a model of behavior of a reasonable individual and, from a didactic perspective, showed the importance of knowledge and work in the life of an individual. The works of the founder of the English psychological novel S. Richardson (1689–1761) are also didactic, in whose novels - Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded(1740) and Clarissa Garlow, or the Story of a Young Lady(1748–1750) - the Puritan-Enlightenment ideal of the individual was embodied. French educators also spoke about the decisive role of education. C.A. Helvetius (1715–1771) in works About the mind(1758) and About a human(1769) proved the influence of the “environment” on education, i.e. living conditions, social order, customs and morals. Rousseau, unlike other educators, was aware of the limitations of reason. In the treatise About sciences and arts(1750) he questioned the cult of science and the boundless optimism associated with the possibility of progress, believing that with the development of civilization there is an impoverishment of culture. Associated with these beliefs were Rousseau's calls for a return to nature. In the essay Emil, or About education(1762) and in the novel Julia, or New Heloise(1761) he developed the concept of natural education based on the use of the natural abilities of a child, free at birth from vices and bad inclinations that are later formed in him under the influence of society. According to Rousseau, children should have been raised in isolation from society, alone with nature.

Enlightenment thought was aimed at constructing utopian models of both the ideal state as a whole and the ideal individual. Therefore, 18th century. may be called the “golden age of utopia.” European culture of this time gave rise to a huge number of novels and treatises telling about the transformation of the world according to the laws of reason and justice - Will J. Meslier (1664–1729); The Code of Nature, or the True Spirit of Her Laws(1773) Morelli; On the rights and responsibilities of a citizen(1789) G. Mably (1709–1785); 2440(1770) L. S. Mercier (1740–1814). The novel by D. Swift (1667–1745) can be considered simultaneously as a utopia and a dystopia. Gulliver's travels(1726), which debunks such fundamental ideas of the Enlightenment as the absolutization of scientific knowledge, belief in law and natural man.

In the artistic culture of the Enlightenment there was no single style of the era, a single artistic language. Various stylistic forms simultaneously existed in it: late baroque, rococo, classicism, sentimentalism, pre-romanticism. The ratio of different types of art changed. Music and literature came to the fore, and the role of theater increased. There was a change in the hierarchy of genres. Historical and mythological painting of the “grand style” of the 17th century gave way to paintings on everyday and moralizing themes (J.B. Chardin (1699–1779), W. Hogarth (1697–1764), J.B. Greuze (1725–1805 In the genre of portrait there is a transition from ostentation to intimacy (T. Gainsborough, 1727–1788, D. Reynolds, 1723–1792). In the theater, a new genre of bourgeois drama and comedy emerges, in which a new hero, a representative of the third estate, is brought onto the stage – from P.O. Beaumarchais (1732–1799) in Barber of Seville(1775) and The Marriage of Figaro(1784), by C. Goldoni (1707–1793) in Servant of two masters(1745, 1748) and To the innkeeper(1753). In the history of world theater, the names of R.B. Sheridan (1751–1816), G. Fielding (1707–1754), and C. Gozzi (1720–1806) stand out prominently.

During the Age of Enlightenment, there was an unprecedented rise in the art of music. After the reform carried out by K.V. Gluck (1714–1787), opera became a synthetic art, combining music, singing and complex dramatic action in one performance. F. J. Haydn (1732–1809) raised instrumental music to the highest level of classical art. The pinnacle of the musical culture of the Enlightenment is the work of J. S. Bach (1685–1750) and W. A. Mozart (1756–1791). The educational ideal emerges especially clearly in Mozart’s opera. magical flute(1791), which is distinguished by the cult of reason, light, and the idea of man as the crown of the Universe.

The educational movement, having common basic principles, developed differently in different countries. The formation of the Enlightenment in each state was associated with its political, social and economic conditions, as well as with national characteristics.

English Enlightenment. The period of formation of educational ideology occurred at the turn of the 17th–18th centuries. This was the result and consequence of the English bourgeois revolution of the mid-17th century, which is the fundamental difference between the insular Enlightenment and the continental one. Having survived the bloody upheavals of civil war and religious intolerance, the British sought stability rather than a radical change in the existing system. Hence the moderation, restraint and skepticism that distinguishes the English Enlightenment. The national peculiarity of England was the strong influence of Puritanism on all spheres of public life, therefore, the belief in the limitless possibilities of the mind, common to Enlightenment thought, was combined among English thinkers with deep religiosity.

French Enlightenment was distinguished by the most radical views on all issues of a political and social nature. French thinkers created teachings that denied private property (Rousseau, Mably, Morelli) and defended atheistic views (Diderot, Helvetius, P.A. Holbach). It was France, which became the center of educational thought for a century, that contributed to the rapid spread of advanced ideas in Europe - from Spain to Russia and North America. These ideas also inspired the ideologists of the Great French Revolution, which radically changed the social and political structure of France.

American Enlightenment. The movement of American educators is closely connected with the struggle of the British colonies in North America for independence (1775–1783), which ended with the creation of the United States of America. The development of socio-political programs that prepared the theoretical basis for building an independent state was carried out by T. Paine (1737–1809), T. Jefferson (1743–1826) and B. Franklin (1706–1790). Their theoretical programs formed the basis for the main legislative acts of the new state: the Declaration of Independence of 1776 and the Constitution of 1787.

German Enlightenment. The development of the German Enlightenment was influenced by the political fragmentation of Germany and its economic backwardness, which determined the predominant interest of German enlighteners not in socio-political problems, but in issues of philosophy, morality, aesthetics and education. A unique version of the European Enlightenment was the literary movement “Sturm and Drang” , to which Herder, Goethe and Schiller belonged. Unlike their predecessors, they had a negative attitude towards the cult of reason, giving preference to the sensual principle in man. A feature of the German Enlightenment was also the flowering of philosophical and aesthetic thought (G. Lessing Laocoon, or on the boundaries of painting and poetry,1766; I. Winkelman History of ancient art,1764).

The Enlightenment is considered to be the stage of development of European culture at the end of the 17th - beginning of the 19th century. Rationalism, intelligence, science - these three concepts began to come to the fore. The basis of the Enlightenment ideology is faith in man. The eighteenth century is a time of man's great hopes for himself and his capabilities, a time of faith in the human mind and the high purpose of man. The enlighteners were convinced that healthy fantasy, imagination, and feeling must be formed. Books began to appear in which writers wanted to put as much information as possible about the world around people, to give them an idea of other countries and continents. Of course, one cannot help but recall such famous people as Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau. A whole variety of genres, from the scientific encyclopedia to the educational novel, appeared during this period. In this regard, Voltaire said: “All genres are beautiful, except the boring.”

Voltaire(1694-1778)

Voltaire's creative legacy is enormous: fifty volumes of six hundred pages each. It was about him that Victor Hugo said that “this is not a person, this is an ERA.” Voltaire still has the fame of an outstanding scientist, philosopher, and poet. What can be found in Voltaire's Philosophical Letters? Principles of philosophy that are still relevant today: tolerance, the right to freely express one’s own thoughts. What about religion? This was also a hot topic. It turns out that the enlighteners, in particular Voltaire, did not reject the existence of God, but rejected the influence of God on the fate of man. It is known that the Russian Empress Catherine the Great corresponded with Voltaire. After the death of the philosopher, she wanted to buy his library along with their correspondence - however, the letters were bought and subsequently published by Pierre Augustin Beaumarchais, the author of The Marriage of Figaro.

By the way, Voltaire’s working day lasted from 18 to 20 hours. At night he often got up, woke up his secretary and dictated to him, or wrote himself. He also drank up to 50 cups of coffee a day.

Jean Jacques Rousseau(1712 – 1778)

Rousseau was not a supporter of radical measures, but his ideas were inspired by the fighters for the ideals of the Great French Revolution.

Just like Voltaire, he is a French philosopher, one of the most influential thinkers of the 18th century, the ideological predecessor of the French Revolution. In his first works, Rousseau expressed the tenets of his worldview. The foundations of civil life, division of labor, property, state and laws are only the source of inequality, unhappiness and depravity of people. Based on the idea that man is naturally endowed with an inclination towards goodness, Rousseau believed that the main task of pedagogy is the development of the good inclinations endowed in man by nature. From this point of view, Rousseau rebelled against any violent methods in education, and especially against cluttering the child's mind with unnecessary knowledge. Rousseau's ideas influenced the leaders of the French Revolution, they are written into the American Constitution, his educational theories still make themselves felt indirectly in almost every school throughout the world, and his influence on literature continues to this day. Rousseau developed his political ideas in a number of works, the pinnacle of which is the treatise “On the Social Contract” published in 1762. “Man is born to be free, and yet he is in chains everywhere.” These words, which begin the first chapter of the treatise, went around the whole world.

By the way, Jean Jacques Rousseau was the author of a musical dictionary and wrote the comic opera “The Village Sorcerer,” which became the founder of French vaudeville operas and lasted on the French opera stage for more than 60 years. As a result of his conflict with the church and government (early 1760s, after the publication of the book “Emile, or On Education”), the suspicion initially characteristic of Rousseau acquired extremely painful forms. He saw conspiracies everywhere. It was his “Social Contract” that inspired the fighters for the ideals of the Great French Revolution; Rousseau himself, paradoxically, was never a supporter of such radical measures.

Denis Diderot(1713-1784)

Diderot enjoyed traveling around Russia and lived in St. Petersburg.

French philosopher-educator - foreign honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Founder and editor of the Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts. In the philosophical works of Denis Diderot, being a supporter of the enlightened monarchy, he came out with an irreconcilable criticism of absolutism, the Christian religion and the church, and defended (based on sensationalism) materialist ideas. Diderot's literary works were written mainly in the tradition of the realistic everyday novel of the Enlightenment. If the bourgeoisie sought to destroy class barriers between itself and the privileged nobility, then Diderot destroyed class barriers in literary genres. From now on, the tragedy became more humanized. All classes could be represented in a dramatic work. At the same time, the rationalistic construction of characters gave way to a real depiction of living people. Like Voltaire, he did not trust the masses of the people, who, in his opinion, were incapable of sound judgment in “moral and political questions.” Diderot maintained friendly relations with Dmitry Golitsyn. As an art critic, he wrote annual reviews of art exhibitions - "Salons". And from 1773 to 1774, Diderot, at the invitation of Catherine II, traveled to Russia and lived in St. Petersburg.

Montesquieu (1689-1755)

Montesquieu developed the doctrine of separation of powers.

Full name: Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron La Brade et de Montesquieu. French writer, lawyer and philosopher, author of the novel “Persian Letters”, articles from the “Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts”, work “On the Spirit of Laws”, supporter of the naturalistic approach to the study of society. Developed the doctrine of separation of powers. Montesquieu led a simple solitary life and concentrated with full spiritual strength and deep seriousness on the task of an observer, a thinker and a seeker of norms. The post of President of the Parliament of Bordeaux, which went to Montesquieu in 1716, soon began to weigh heavily on him. In 1726 he resigned this position, but, as the owner of the castle of La Brede, he faithfully maintained the corporate beliefs of the parliamentary aristocracy.

He represented a type of French aristocrat, already rare at that time, who did not allow himself to be caught by the temptations of the court, and became a scientist in the spirit of noble independence. The large trips around Europe undertaken by Montesquieu in 1728-1731 had the character of serious research trips. Montesquieu actively visited literary salons and clubs and was acquainted with many writers, scientists, and diplomats. Among his interlocutors, for example, is the French researcher of controversial issues of international law Gabriel Mably.

1 See; Markov G.E. History of economy and material culture in primitive and early class society. M.: MSU, 1979. P. 1920.

1 Chelles culture - about 600-400 thousand years ago, so named after finds near the city of Chelles (France). It is characterized by extremely primitive stone tools and hand axes. Economy: hunting and gathering. The physical type of a person is Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, Atlantropus, Heidelberg Man, etc.

2 Exogamy is the prohibition of marriage within one group.

1 Rigveda - a collection of religious hymns with ideological and cosmological content, took shape in the 10th century. BC.

1 See: Story National Economy: Dictionary-Reference Book / Ed. A.N. Markova.
– M.: VZFEI, 1995. – P. 19.

1 The Hittite kingdom arose in the 17th century BC. on the territory of Asia Minor; in its heyday (XIV-XIII centuries BC) also included some areas of the Eastern Mediterranean and Northern Mesopotamia. In the 12th century. BC. under the onslaught of the Sea Peoples, the Hittite state ceased to exist.

1 Founded in the 16th century. BC. tribes of Hurrians who came from the Iranian plateau; occupied a significant part of Northern Mesopotamia in the 14th century. BC. was subjugated by the Hittites.

1 On the territory of the Eastern Mediterranean back in the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. city-states appear, the largest of which were Ebla and Ugarit in Syria, Hazor in Palestine, Byblos and Sidon in Phenicia. In the 12th century. BC. The Israeli state begins to form in Palestine.

2 This state arose in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. in the valley of the Kerkh and Karun rivers (southwest of modern Iran): the history of Elam is closely connected with the history of Mesopotamia. XII century BC. was the heyday of the state, in the 6th century. BC. it became part of the Achaemenid state.

1 Existed at the end of the 4th-1st centuries. BC, covered part of the territory of the Middle East, Iran and Afghanistan.

1 Greek archaio - ancient.

1 Cities united in a Union (from German Hansa - union).

1 Spanish conqueror-adventurers.

1 The Independents (English - literally independent) - a political party that expressed the interests of the radical wing of the bourgeoisie and the bourgeoisified new nobility, were in power in 1649-1660.

1 Levellers (English - literally equalizers) are a radical political party.

2 Diggers (English - lit. diggers) - the extreme left wing of revolutionary democracy, separated from the Leveler movement.

1 In the XV-XVII centuries. French kings waged a long struggle with the Habsburgs: the Italian wars of 1494-1559, the Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648. In 1667, France began the War of Devolution against Spain, using the so-called devolution law as a pretext. According to the Peace of Anhen concluded in 1668, France retained 11 cities it had captured, but returned Frant-Comte to Spain.

1 Anabaptists demanded secondary baptism (at a conscious age), denied church hierarchy, opposed wealth, and advocated community of property.

1 Marx K., Engels F. Op. T. 7. – P. 342.

1 The Ansei Treaties are unequal treaties concluded by the United States, Russia, England and France with Japan in 1854-1858, which put an end to the external isolation of Japan.

1 Marx K. Engels F. Soch. T.4. – P. 524.

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THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT Enlightenment, intellectual and spiritual movement of the late 17th and early 19th centuries. in Europe and North America. It was a natural continuation of the humanism of the Renaissance and the rationalism of the early modern era, which laid the foundations of the enlightenment worldview: the rejection of a religious worldview and an appeal to reason as the only criterion for knowledge of man and society. The name was fixed after the publication of I. Kant’s article Answer to the question: What is Enlightenment?(1784). The root word “light,” from which the term “enlightenment” comes (English: Enlightenment; French: Les Lumières; German: Aufklärung; Italian: Illuminismo), goes back to an ancient religious tradition, enshrined in both the Old and New Testaments. This is the Creator’s separation of light from darkness, and the definition of God himself as Light. Christianization itself implies the enlightenment of humanity with the light of the teachings of Christ. Rethinking this image, the enlighteners put a new understanding into it, talking about the enlightenment of man with the light of reason

The period of the late Enlightenment (late 18th - early 19th centuries) is associated with the countries of Eastern Europe, Russia and Germany. German literature and philosophical thought gave new impetus to the Enlightenment. German enlighteners were the spiritual successors of the ideas of English and French thinkers, but in their writings they were transformed and took on a deeply national character. The originality of the national culture and language was asserted by I.G. Herder (1744–1803). His main work Ideas for the philosophy of human history(1784–1791) became the first thorough classical work with which Germany entered the arena of world historical and philosophical science. The work of many German writers was in tune with the philosophical quest of the European Enlightenment. The pinnacle of the German Enlightenment, which gained worldwide fame, were such works as Robbers (1781), Deceit and love (1784), Wallenstein (1799), Mary Stuart(1801) F. Schiller (1759–1805), Emilia Galotti, Nathan the Wise G.E. Lessing (1729–1781) and especially Faust(1808–1832) I.-V. Goethe (1749–1832). The philosophers G. W. Leibniz (1646–1716) and I. Kant (1724–1804) played an important role in the formation of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The idea of progress, traditional for the Enlightenment, was developed in Critique of Pure Reason I. Kant (1724–1804), who became the founder of German classical philosophy.

In the artistic culture of the Enlightenment there was no single style of the era, a single artistic language. Various stylistic forms simultaneously existed in it: late baroque, rococo, classicism, sentimentalism, pre-romanticism. The ratio of different types of art changed. Music and literature came to the fore, and the role of theater increased. There was a change in the hierarchy of genres. Historical and mythological painting of the “grand style” of the 17th century gave way to paintings on everyday and moralizing themes (J.B. Chardin (1699–1779), W. Hogarth (1697–1764), J.B. Greuze (1725–1805 In the genre of portrait there is a transition from ostentation to intimacy (T. Gainsborough, 1727–1788, D. Reynolds, 1723–1792). A new genre of bourgeois drama and comedy arises in the theater, in which a new hero, a representative of the third estate, is brought onto the stage – from P.O. Beaumarchais (1732–1799) in Barber of Seville(1775) and The Marriage of Figaro(1784), by C. Goldoni (1707–1793) in Servant of two masters(1745, 1748) and To the innkeeper(1753). In the history of world theater, the names of R.B. Sheridan (1751–1816), G. Fielding (1707–1754), and C. Gozzi (1720–1806) stand out prominently.

English Enlightenment.

The period of formation of educational ideology occurred at the turn of the 17th–18th centuries. This was the result and consequence of the English bourgeois revolution of the mid-17th century, which is the fundamental difference between the insular Enlightenment and the continental one. Having survived the bloody upheavals of civil war and religious intolerance, the British sought stability rather than a radical change in the existing system. Hence the moderation, restraint and skepticism that distinguishes the English Enlightenment. The national peculiarity of England was the strong influence of Puritanism on all spheres of public life, therefore, the belief in the limitless possibilities of the mind, common to Enlightenment thought, was combined among English thinkers with deep religiosity.

French Enlightenment

was distinguished by the most radical views on all issues of a political and social nature. French thinkers created teachings that denied private property (Rousseau, Mably, Morelli) and defended atheistic views (Diderot, Helvetius, P.A. Holbach). It was France, which became the center of educational thought for a century, that contributed to the rapid spread of advanced ideas in Europe - from Spain to Russia and North America. These ideas also inspired the ideologists of the Great French Revolution, which radically changed the social and political structure of France.

American Enlightenment.

The movement of American educators is closely connected with the struggle of the British colonies in North America for independence (1775–1783), which ended with the creation of the United States of America. The development of socio-political programs that prepared the theoretical basis for building an independent state was carried out by T. Paine (1737–1809), T. Jefferson (1743–1826) and B. Franklin (1706–1790). Their theoretical programs formed the basis for the main legislative acts of the new state: the Declaration of Independence of 1776 and the Constitution of 1787.

German Enlightenment.

The development of the German Enlightenment was influenced by the political fragmentation of Germany and its economic backwardness, which determined the predominant interest of German enlighteners not in socio-political problems, but in issues of philosophy, morality, aesthetics and education. A unique version of the European Enlightenment was the literary movement “Sturm and Drang” , to which Herder, Goethe and Schiller belonged. Unlike their predecessors, they had a negative attitude towards the cult of reason, giving preference to the sensual principle in man. A feature of the German Enlightenment was also the flowering of philosophical and aesthetic thought (G. Lessing Laocoon, or on the boundaries of painting and poetry,1766; I. Winkelman History of ancient art,1764).

Lyudmila Tsarkova

The Age of Enlightenment is one of the most important eras in the history of European culture, characterized by the development of social, philosophical and scientific thought. This powerful ideological movement was based on freethinking and rationalism, and educators saw knowledge as a powerful engine for the progress of all mankind.

Years of the Age of Enlightenment

The Enlightenment is a significant period in the history of the development of European society, which became a continuation of the humanistic ideas of the Renaissance. Enlighteners are outstanding scientists, thinkers and writers of their time who in every possible way contributed to the dissemination of educational ideas among the people.

The ideas of enlightenment arose at the end of the 17th century in England, under the influence of the scientific revolution. The founder of this movement was the English thinker John Locke, who in his works highlighted human rights to life, freedom, and private property. As a teacher, he attached great importance to the education and upbringing of every person.

Rice. 1. John Locke.

The Age of Enlightenment reached its greatest flowering in France in the 18th century, and its ideas very quickly spread throughout Europe and Russia. This movement was a response to the deepening crisis of absolute monarchy and feudalism, which could no longer satisfy the needs of society.

In each country, the enlightenment movement had its own characteristics, but its tasks were common to all:

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The fight against feudalism and its basic concept.
The fight against the church - the most important support of the feudal system.
Creation of an ideal model of society, which would be based on the principles of the bourgeoisie.

Tsarist Russia's response to educational ideas was the creation in 1802 of the Ministry of Public Education. His main task was to carry out reforms in the educational system, updating all stages of the educational process.

Rice. 2. Ministry of Public Education.

Features of the culture of the Enlightenment

The main difference between the culture of the Age of Enlightenment is the availability of knowledge for all segments of society. Leading thinkers believed that only through the spread of education could many social problems be overcome. This is what rationalism is - the dominance of reason in people's behavior.

Enlightenment ideas were reflected in culture and science. Biology, chemistry, and mathematics received special development. A distinctive feature of scientific knowledge of the Enlightenment was the emphasis on its practical use in industrial and social development.

In the 18th century, music, literature and theater reached their peak. The best thinkers of the Enlightenment - Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, Alembert, Montesquieu - left behind literary works devoted to the ideas of humanism, freedom and equality.

Theater has become an incredibly popular art form. The theatrical stage became the arena in which the struggle of modern progressive thought with the callous old foundations took place.

Rice. 3. Theater of the Enlightenment.

The most popular comedy of the 18th century was Beaumarchais's The Marriage of Figaro. This play reflected all the moods of society, which had an extremely negative attitude towards an absolute monarchy.

The Age of Enlightenment had a huge impact on the development of society, creating all the prerequisites for scientific and technological progress. This period went down in history as the Silver Age.

The impetus for the transition to the Age of Enlightenment in all countries is the rejection of the feudal way of life and the transition to a more democratic system. How does its democracy manifest itself? Firstly, the culture of the Enlightenment is not intended for some selected layer of society, not for its rich elite, but for the entire people.

The goal of the Enlightenment was to make the entire people more educated. This is why the significance of the Age of Enlightenment as a whole for the entire cultural process in the world is very great. Thanks to him, the cultural framework, which previously covered only a small layer of society, significantly expanded. It was thanks to such a concept as the Enlightenment that the definitions “cultured” and “educated” could apply to any person seeking to enrich his inner world, even if this person had little means.

Equality is what the Enlightenment brought to life. It was precisely the concept of equality that became key to further cultural development. The fact that all people are initially equal and have the same rights to their further development as individuals served as the basis for the creation of the ideals of the Enlightenment. Who was the ideal of this era, which is often called "age of Reason"? Of course, a person, who is distinguished from an animal by the ability to think rationally. It is he who possesses not only physical, but also spiritual power.

According to many thinkers, the Enlightenment is the main engine of social progress.

For example, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant(1724–1804) wrote that “Enlightenment is a person’s emergence from the state of his minority...”. And “minority” “is the inability to use one’s reason without guidance from someone else.” According to I. Kant, a person “is in this minority through his own fault,” solely because of the “lack of determination and courage to use” his own reason.

This desire for independence, the participation of each person in the reconstruction of the world around him through the capabilities of his mind, has led to the fact that the religious ideas and thinking of the people have radically changed. One of the extremes of these changes is the emergence of atheist enlighteners who rejected religious ideas and cults and, contrary to these ideas, put man above all else. As a consequence, during the Enlightenment, a new form of faith emerged - deism. Enlightenment deists did not deny the existence of God as the world's mind, nor did they deny the fact that it is he who is the first cause of the world. That is, according to deists, God is the creator of the world as a kind of “machine”, to which he determined the laws of its movement. Any further intervention of God in the structure of this “machine” is rejected by deists; here man comes to the fore and makes his own adjustments.

It is worth noting that the Enlightenment era was characterized by optimistic sentiments associated with the belief that a person can be changed for the better. It is not for nothing that there was another definition of the Enlightenment as the “golden age of utopia.” This utopia referred primarily to changes in political and social foundations. A harmonious society, living according to reason, with a sense of responsibility for each individual person, is the ideal social structure of the utopian enlighteners. But despite the great desire to achieve such a society, many utopians, for example Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), little believed in its possibility.

The feudal system gave way to a new bourgeois type of economic relations. But this transition was not very smooth. It was preceded not just by gradual progressive transformations, but by real revolutions that affected various aspects of human life.

The Age of Enlightenment, which began with the last revolution in England (1689), subsequently included three revolutions at once:

1) industrial in England;

2) political in France;

3) philosophical and aesthetic in Germany.

But the Enlightenment affected not only the social structure of society, but also cultural development.

Leadership has emerged in philosophy rationalism, which replaced metaphysics. That is, it was the mind that began to be revered as the basis of human knowledge and behavior. Only reason was recognized as having the final say, both in life and in science, and even in religion.

Although the Age of Enlightenment spanned many countries, each of them had its own characteristics, primarily related to national identity.

England is considered the birthplace of the Enlightenment. Even the church here did not go against the Enlightenment, but accepted its values and ideals. The reconstruction of society after the revolution and civil wars, the strengthening of the rule of law with its desire for equality made England a kind of standard to which other states aspired.

The first to formulate the program of the English Enlightenment, which was also followed in France, was the philosopher John Locke(1632–1704). In his work "An Essay on Human Understanding", written in 1689, he identified three fundamental human rights, which are referred to as "inalienable rights":

1) the human right to life;

2) the human right to freedom;

3) right to property.

D. Locke saw the result of the adoption of these three rights in the “legal equality of individuals.”

D. Locke attributed great importance to human labor. In his opinion, it is labor that determines what kind of property a person will have.

Another English educator, philosopher, also adhered to the idea of equality Thomas Hobbes(1588–1679). He believed that all people are equal by nature, and inequality is the cause of many troubles, such as conflicts, wars, etc. And in order to avoid these troubles, T. Hobbes believed, every person needs to get rid of his selfish passions.

But there were thinkers who held a completely opposite opinion. Thus was born a new direction in philosophy, called ethics of self-love or reasonable egoism. His followers were the English thinker and writer Bernard Mandeville(1670–1733), as well as an English philosopher and sociologist Jeremiah Ventham(1748–1832). According to supporters of the ethics of self-love, selfishness is the driving force in the cultural and moral life of people.

Among the Scottish educators, it is worth highlighting the economist and philosopher Adam Smith(1723–1790). He put forward his innovative idea of civic behavior and social relations, in which he assigned a large role to the market. It was thanks to the market, according to A. Smith, that man was able to throw off the shackles of feudalism. Human freedom is determined primarily by his role in economic relations.

The Age of Enlightenment in France became famous with the names of great thinkers. First of all - Voltaire, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Tseni Diderot And Charles Louis Montesquieu.

One of the supporters of deism in France was a writer and educator Voltaire(1694–1778), whose real name Marie Francois Arouet. Already in his early works his indignation towards absolutism was evident; he ridiculed feudal society with its principles and moral values in every possible way. Such works as “Philosophical Letters,” written in 1733, and “Philosophical Dictionary,” written between 1764 and 1769, are devoted to criticism of the feudal-absolutist system. But Voltaire’s work covered not only philosophical and political themes. His prose was devoted to very diverse topics, written in various genres: from tragedy and comedy to poetry and novels. Voltaire's ideas played an important role in the development of world thought. In particular, in Russia it has become very widespread Voltairianism, which was associated with freethinking, religious skepticism, and the overthrow of authority.

Another critic of absolutism was Voltaire’s contemporary and compatriot, a lawyer and philosopher Charles Louis Montesquieu(1689–1755). His main works are “Persian Letters,” written in 1721, and the book “On the Spirit of Laws,” written in 1748. In them, S. L. Montesquieu discusses the causality of the emergence of one or another form of statehood, sees a solution to problems associated with legality, separation of powers.

The great French writer and philosopher remained irreconcilable with religious ideas, as well as absolutism in power throughout his life. Denis Diderot(1713–1784). He was a materialist, that is, a supporter of the idea that matter is primary, and all thinking and consciousness are only properties of this matter. One of the greatest achievements of D. Diderot is the idea of creating the “Encyclopedia” (1751–1780). He was not only its inspiration, but also its creator and editor. The Encyclopedia consisted of thirty-five volumes.

Jean Jacques Rousseau(1712–1778), French writer and philosopher, who, like other educators, treated the official church with distrust and even indignation. His works trace the main idea of the Enlightenment - the idea of universal equality. This theme is typical for such of his works as “Discourse on the Beginning and Foundations of Inequality” (1755), “On the Social Contract” (1762). In them he criticizes absolutism and extreme despotism of power.

According to J. J. Rousseau, many of a person’s problems are the result of his corrupt morals. This depravity came from poor upbringing and inequality. Therefore, Rousseau saw the solution in the eradication of all inequality, in the correct education of people who could serve for the good of society. That is why one of the most famous works of J. J. Rousseau is his novel “Emile, or on Education,” dedicated to pedagogical problems in the education system. The main goal of education, according to Rousseau, is the development in a person of an internal consciousness of goodness and the protection of his moral feelings from the corrupting influence of society.

The Enlightenment did not stand still either. The difficult situation in which Germany found itself, its fragmentation and economic instability left its characteristic national imprint on the German Enlightenment.

Among the German philosophers and educators it is worth highlighting Immanuel Kantam his contemporaries: Gotthold Ephraim Lessing And Johann Gottfried Herder.

The main idea of the German philosopher, art theorist and playwright Gotthold Ephraim Lessing(1729–1781) there was a political renewal that he saw in the unity of the human race. The goal of this renewal is the final stage in the development of human civilization, “the era of the new, eternal Gospel.”

Another German enlightenment philosopher, critic and esthetician was a supporter of humanistic ideas Johann Gottfried Herder(1744–1803). He stood for originality in art, for national differences and diversity. Some of his most significant works, imbued with the ideas of humanism, were the essay “Another Philosophy of History for the Education of Humanity”, as well as “Letters for the Encouragement of Humanity” (1793–1797).

I. Kant had his own concept of Enlightenment, according to which Enlightenment is the liberation of man from moral and intellectual dependence. In this regard, it is worth noting such a work by I. Kant as “Observation of the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime.” The beautiful and the sublime are the two main categories according to I. Kant. I. Kant observes all human feelings only through the prism of these categories.

And if the beautiful and sublime, rather, belongs to the world of art and creativity, then there were other topics that I. Kant touched on in his writings. He is concerned about many social issues. For example, issues close to art, such as the development of culture created by man, the laws of this development. I. Kant sees the reason for any development as the natural competition of people in the pursuit of their personal freedom, self-realization, and the achievement of the significance of their personality.

An important concept in the philosophy of I. Kant is the concept of “thing in itself”. This concept means a thing considered from the side of its qualities that do not depend on a person in any way. It is interesting that in the first edition of his work “Critique of Pure Reason,” written in 1781, I. Kant denies any existence of “things in themselves.” And already in the second reissue it proves the opposite, that the “thing in itself” can be real.

The significance of I. Kant's philosophy for the subsequent development of philosophical thought is enormous. It was I. Kant who was the founder of German classical philosophy.

The art of the Enlightenment was characterized by its own stylistic and genre features. Three main trends characteristic of European art can be distinguished.

1. Classicism, from the Latin word classicus, What does "exemplary" mean?

2. Romanticism, from the French word romanticism.

It was the sentimentalists who created the cult of nature characteristic of the Enlightenment. In their opinion, natural areas such as gardens and parks are the most favorable places for a person who strives for his development and improvement.

Here parks are not just places with natural or planted vegetation. They include various cultural buildings such as museums, libraries, theaters, art galleries and temples, etc. From this we can conclude that the art of the Enlightenment era reached great heights.

Art in France is associated primarily with such a new concept as rococo. It is characterized by asymmetry, playfulness and pretentiousness, luxury and mannerism.

An example of Rococo is the work of the French painter Francois Boucher(1703–1770), such as “Venus Consoling Cupid” (1751), “Breakfast” (1750), “Diana’s Bath” (1742), “Morning” (1745), “The Resting Girl” (1752). ), “Toilet of Venus” (1751), etc.

The French draftsman and painter is rightfully considered the founder of the Rococo style. Antoine Watteau(1684–1721). His works, from everyday scenes to gallant celebrations, stand out for their brightness, sophistication, and colorfulness. His most famous paintings: “Society in the Park” (1716–1719), “Dance” (1710–1720), “Mezzeten” (1717–1719), “Lovers on Vacation”, “Pilgrimage to the Island” Kiefer" (1717–1718).

But the very first painter-educator was an Englishman William Hogarth(1697–1764). It was he who was the first to introduce secular themes into painting, whereas previously works of art with religious themes had predominated. W. Hogarth's paintings were characterized by satire; he used painting to ridicule the vices of the aristocracy. An example of this is his paintings “The Career of a Prostitute” (1730–1731), “The Career of a Spendthrift” (1732–1735), “The Marriage Contract,” “Elections” (c. 1754), etc.

His compatriot, painter of the Enlightenment Thomas Gainsborough(1727–1888) was one of the most outstanding portrait painters. His portraits (“Self-Portrait” (1754 and 1758), “Portrait of a Lady in Blue” (1770), “Girl with Pigs” (1782), “Morning Walk” (1785), etc.) spiritual, poetic, full of lyricism and spiritual sophistication.

In Italy, namely in Venice, in the 18th century. a new direction of painting was born - veduta.

Veduta (from the Italian word veduta) – this is an urban architectural landscape. Representatives of this trend were the Venetian painters-enlightenment Giovanni Canaletto (1697–1768) (“Portello and the Brenta Canal in Padua”, “Mason’s Court”, “Piazza of Saints John and Paul in Venice”, “Church of Santa Maria della Salute in Venice” , “Piazza San Marco in Venice”), Francesco Guardi (1712–1793) (“View of the square with the palace”, “Capriccio on the promenade of the Venetian Lagoon”, “Departure of the Doge on the Bucentoro to the Church of San Nicolo on the Lido”, "View of the Venetian Lagoon with the Malghera Tower").

The literary art of the Enlightenment did not stand still either. This is largely due to the flourishing of theatrical art. It is not without reason that the Age of Enlightenment is called the “golden age of theatre.”

In England this is associated with the name of the playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1751–1816). He became famous for his satirical comedies: The Rivals (1775), Trips to Scarborough (1777), The School for Scandal.

Theatrical art was highly developed in Venice. Here, in a small city, there were seven theaters. Venetian theaters existed largely thanks to the merits of outstanding playwrights: Carlo Goldoni and Carlo Gozzi.

Most famous works Carlo Goldoni(1707–1793) – “The Cunning Widow” (1748), “The Innkeeper” (1753), “The Servant of Two Masters” (1745–1753). Thanks to his wit and sparkling humor, C. Goldoni became widely known throughout the world.

His contemporary Carlo Gozzi(1720–1806) wrote fairy tales (fiabs) for the theater, which were based on folklore: “The Love for Three Oranges” (1761), “The Deer King” (1762), “Turandot” (1762), etc. And if C. Goldoni refused method of commedia dell'arte (improvisation based on a script), then C. Gozzi, on the contrary, continued to widely use this method.

Comedy of manners reached great heights in the work of the French playwright of the Enlightenment. Pierre Augustin Beaumarchais (1732–1799). The heroes of his works tried in every possible way to protest and ridicule the existing regime. (The Barber of Seville (1775) and The Marriage of Figaro (1784)).

During the Enlightenment, a “universal genius” appeared in Germany, the founder of German literature, writer Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749–1832). His works are imbued with anti-feudal sentiments, they describe the problems of human relationships, the search for the meaning of life (the play “Egmont” (1788), the tragedy “Faust” (1803–1832), the autobiographical book “Poetry and Truth”, etc.) . I. Goethe was not only a talented writer, but also a brilliant natural scientist (“Essay on the Metamorphosis of Plants” (1790), “The Doctrine of Color” (1810)).

Musical art can be placed on a par with theater and literary art. Operas and other musical works were written on the themes of the works of great writers and playwrights.

The development of musical art is primarily associated with the names of such great composers as I.-S. Bach, G. F. Handel, I Haydn, W. A. Mozart, L. V. Beethoven and etc.

The German composer, organist and harpsichordist was an unsurpassed master of polyphony. Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750). His works were imbued with deep philosophical meaning and high ethics. He was able to summarize the achievements in musical art that his predecessors had achieved. His most famous works are “The Well-Tempered Clavier” (1722–1744), “The St. John Passion” (1724), “The St. Matthew Passion” (1727 and 1729), many concerts and cantatas, the Mass of the minor (1747–1749), etc.

Unlike I.-S. Bach, who did not write a single opera, German composer and organist George Frideric Handel (1685–1759) belong to more than forty operas. As well as works on biblical themes (oratorios “Israel in Egypt” (1739), “Saul” (1739), “Messiah” (1742), “Samson” (1743), “Judas Maccabee” (1747), etc.), organ concerts, sonatas, suites, etc.

The great Austrian composer was a master of classical instrumental genres such as symphonies, quartets, as well as sonata forms. Joseph Haydn(1732–1809). It was thanks to him that the classical composition of the orchestra was formed. He owns several oratorios (“The Seasons” (1801), “The Creation of the World” (1798)), 104 symphonies, 83 quartets, 52 piano sonatas, 14 masses, etc.

Another Austrian composer, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart(1756–1791), was a child prodigy, thanks to which he became famous in early childhood. He wrote over 20 operas, including the famous “The Marriage of Figaro” (1786), “Don Giovanni” (1787), “The Magic Flute” (1791), more than 50 symphonies, many concerts, piano works (sonatas) , fantasies, variations), unfinished “Requiem” (1791), songs, masses, etc.

The German composer had a difficult fate, which left its mark on all his work. Ludwig van Beethoven(1770–1827). His genius manifested itself already in childhood and did not leave him even in the terrible trouble for any composer and musician - hearing loss. His works have a philosophical character. Many works were influenced by his republican views as a composer. Beethoven owns nine symphonies, instrumental sonatas (Moonlight, Pathétique), sixteen string quartets, ensembles, the opera Fidelio, overtures (Egmont, Coriolanus), concertos for piano and orchestra and other works.

His famous expression: “Music should strike fire from people’s hearts.” He followed this idea for the rest of his life.

At the end of the 17th century, the Age of Enlightenment began, which covered the entire subsequent 18th century. The key features of this time were freethinking and rationalism. The culture of the Enlightenment took shape, which gave the world

Philosophy

The entire culture of the Enlightenment was based on new philosophical ideas formulated by thinkers of that time. The main rulers of thought were John Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Goethe, Kant and some others. It was they who determined the spiritual appearance of the 18th century (which is also called the Age of Reason).

The Enlightenment believed in several key ideas. One of them is that all people are equal by nature, each person has his own interests and needs. To satisfy them, it is necessary to create a hostel that is comfortable for everyone. Personality is not born on its own - it is formed over time due to the fact that people have physical and spiritual strength, as well as intelligence. Equality must first and foremost consist in the equality of all before the law.

The culture of the Enlightenment is a culture of knowledge accessible to all. Leading thinkers believed that only through the spread of education could social unrest be ended. This is rationalism - the recognition of reason as the basis of human behavior and cognition.

During the Enlightenment, debates about religion continued. The dissociation of society from the inert and conservative church (primarily the Catholic one) grew. Among educated believers, the idea of God as a kind of absolute mechanic who brought order to the originally existing world spread. Thanks to numerous scientific discoveries, the point of view has spread that humanity can reveal all the secrets of the universe, and mysteries and miracles are a thing of the past.

Art movements

In addition to philosophy, there was also the artistic culture of the Enlightenment. At this time, the art of the Old World included two main directions. The first was classicism. It is embodied in literature, music, and fine arts. This direction implied following ancient Roman and Greek principles. Such art was distinguished by symmetry, rationality, purposefulness and strict compliance with form.

Within the framework of romanticism, the artistic culture of the Enlightenment responded to other requests: emotionality, imagination, creative improvisation of the artist. It often happened that in one work these two opposing approaches were combined. For example, the form could correspond to classicism, and the content - to romanticism.

Experimental styles also appeared. Sentimentalism became an important phenomenon. It did not have its own stylistic form, but it was with its help that the then ideas about human kindness and purity, which is given to people by nature, were reflected. Russian artistic culture in the Age of Enlightenment, just like European culture, had its own vibrant works that belonged to the movement of sentimentalism. This was the story of Nikolai Karamzin “Poor Liza”.

Cult of nature

It was the sentimentalists who created the cult of nature characteristic of the Enlightenment. Thinkers of the 18th century looked for in it an example of the beautiful and good that humanity should strive for. The parks and gardens that were actively appearing in Europe at that time turned out to be the embodiment of a better world. They were created as a perfect environment for perfect people. Their composition included art galleries, libraries, museums, temples, and theaters.

The Enlightenmentists believed that the new "natural man" must return to his natural state - that is, nature. According to this idea, Russian artistic culture during the Enlightenment (or rather, architecture) gave Peterhof to its contemporaries. The famous architects Leblon, Zemtsov, Usov, Quarenghi worked on its construction. Thanks to their efforts, a unique ensemble appeared on the shores of the Gulf of Finland, which included a unique park, magnificent palaces and fountains.

Painting

In painting, the artistic culture of Enlightenment Europe developed in the direction of greater secularism. The religious principle was losing ground even in those countries where it had previously felt quite confident: Austria, Italy, Germany. Landscape painting replaced the mood landscape, and the intimate portrait replaced the formal portrait.

In the first half of the 18th century, French culture of the Enlightenment gave birth to the Rococo style. Such art was built on asymmetry, it was mocking, playful and pretentious. The favorite characters of the artists of this movement were bacchantes, nymphs, Venus, Diana and other figures of ancient mythology, and the main subjects were love ones.

A striking example of French Rococo is the work of Francois Boucher, who was also called “the first artist of the king.” He painted theatrical scenery, illustrations for books, and paintings for rich houses and palaces. His most famous paintings: “Toilet of Venus”, “Triumph of Venus”, etc.

Antoine Watteau, on the contrary, turned more to modern life. Under his influence, the style of the greatest English portrait painter, Thomas Gainsborough, developed. His images were distinguished by their spirituality, spiritual sophistication and poetry.

The main Italian painter of the 18th century was Giovanni Tiepolo. This master of engravings and frescoes is considered by art historians to be the last great representative of the Venetian school. The capital of the famous trading republic also gave rise to the veduta - the everyday cityscape. The most famous creators in this genre were Francesco Guardi and Antonio Canaletto. These cultural figures of the Enlightenment left behind a huge number of impressive paintings.

Theater

The 18th century is the golden age of theatre. During the Age of Enlightenment, this art form reached the height of its popularity and prevalence. In England, the greatest playwright was Richard Sheridan. His most famous works, “The Trip to Scarborough,” “The School for Scandal,” and “The Rivals,” satirized the immorality of the bourgeoisie.

The theatrical culture of Europe during the Enlightenment developed most dynamically in Venice, where 7 theaters operated at once. The traditional annual city carnival attracted guests from all over the Old World. The author of the famous “Tavern”, Carlo Goldoni, worked in Venice. This playwright, who wrote a total of 267 works, was respected and appreciated by Voltaire.

The most famous comedy of the 18th century was The Marriage of Figaro, written by the great Frenchman Beaumarchais. This play embodied the mood of society, which had a negative attitude towards the absolute monarchy of the Bourbons. A few years after the publication and first performances of the comedy, a revolution occurred in France that overthrew the old regime.

European culture during the Enlightenment was not homogeneous. In some countries, their own national characteristics arose in art. For example, German playwrights (Schiller, Goethe, Lessing) wrote their most outstanding works in the genre of tragedy. Moreover, the theater of the Enlightenment in Germany appeared several decades later than in France or England.

Johann Goethe was not only a wonderful poet and playwright. It is not without reason that he is called a “universal genius” - an art connoisseur and theorist, scientist, novelist and specialist in many other fields. His key works are the tragedy "Faust" and the play "Egmont". Another outstanding figure of the German Enlightenment, not only wrote "Cunning and Love" and "Robbers", but also left behind scientific and historical works.

Fiction

The main literary genre of the 18th century was the novel. It was thanks to the new books that the triumph of bourgeois culture came, replacing the old feudal ideology. The works of not only artistic writers, but also sociologists, philosophers, and economists were actively published.

The novel, as a genre, grew out of educational journalism. With its help, thinkers of the 18th century found a new form for expressing their social and philosophical ideas. Jonathan Swift, who wrote Gulliver's Travels, put into his work many allusions to the vices of his contemporary society. He also wrote “The Tale of the Butterfly.” In this pamphlet, Swift ridiculed the then church order and strife.

The development of culture during the Enlightenment can be traced by the emergence of new literary genres. At this time, the epistolary novel (a novel in letters) arose. This was, for example, Johann Goethe’s sentimental work “The Sorrows of Young Werther,” in which the main character committed suicide, as well as Montesquieu’s “Persian Letters.” Documentary novels appeared in the genre of travelogues or travel descriptions (“Travels in France and Italy” by Tobias Smollett).

In literature, the culture of the Enlightenment in Russia followed the precepts of classicism. In the 18th century, the poets Alexander Sumarokov, Vasily Trediakovsky, and Antioch Cantemir worked. The first shoots of sentimentalism appeared (the already mentioned Karamzin with “Poor Liza” and “Natalia, the Boyar’s Daughter”). The culture of the Enlightenment in Russia created all the prerequisites for Russian literature, led by Pushkin, Lermontov and Gogol, to experience its golden age already at the beginning of the new 19th century.

Music

It was during the Enlightenment that the modern musical language emerged. Johann Bach is considered its founder. This great composer wrote works in all genres (opera was the exception). Bach is still considered an unrivaled master of polyphony today. Another German composer, George Handel, wrote more than 40 operas, as well as numerous sonatas and suites. He, like Bach, drew inspiration from biblical stories (characteristic titles of the works: “Israel in Egypt,” “Saul,” “Messiah”).

Another important musical phenomenon of that time was the Viennese school. The works of its representatives continue to be performed by academic orchestras today, thanks to which modern people can touch the heritage left by the culture of the Age of Enlightenment. The 18th century is associated with the names of such geniuses as Wolfgang Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Ludwig Van Beethoven. It was these Viennese composers who rethought previous musical forms and genres.

Haydn is considered the father of the classical symphony (he wrote more than a hundred of them). Many of these works were based on folk dances and songs. The pinnacle of Haydn's work is the cycle of London symphonies, written by him during his trips to England. The culture of the Enlightenment, or any other period of human history, has rarely produced such prolific artists. In addition to symphonies, Haydn wrote 83 quartets, 13 masses, 20 operas and 52 keyboard sonatas.

Mozart not only wrote music. He played the harpsichord and violin unsurpassed, having mastered these instruments in very early childhood. His operas and concerts are distinguished by a wide variety of moods (from poetic lyrics to fun). Mozart's main works are considered to be his three symphonies, written in the same year, 1788 (number 39, 40, 41).

Another great classic, Beethoven, was fond of heroic subjects, which was reflected in the overtures “Egmont”, “Coriolanus” and the opera “Fidelio”. As a performer, he amazed his contemporaries by playing the piano. Beethoven wrote 32 sonatas for this instrument. The composer created most of his works in Vienna. He also owns 10 sonatas for violin and piano (the Kreutzer Sonata is the most famous).

Beethoven suffered from severe hearing loss. The composer was inclined towards suicide and in despair wrote his legendary “Moon” sonata. However, even a terrible illness did not break the artist’s will. Having overcome his own apathy, Beethoven wrote many more symphonic works.

English Enlightenment

England was the birthplace of the European Enlightenment. In this country, earlier than others, back in the 17th century, a bourgeois revolution took place, which gave impetus to cultural development. England has become a clear example of social progress. Philosopher John Locke was one of the first and main theorists of the liberal idea. Under the influence of his writings, the most important political document of the Enlightenment era was written - the American Declaration of Independence. Locke believed that human knowledge is determined by sensory perception and experience, which refuted the previously popular philosophy of Descartes.

Another important British thinker of the 18th century was David Hume. This philosopher, economist, historian, diplomat and publicist updated the science of morality. His contemporary Adam Smith became the founder of modern economic theory. The culture of the Age of Enlightenment, in short, preceded many modern concepts and ideas. Smith's work was exactly like that. He was the first to equate the importance of the market with the importance of the state.

Thinkers of France

French philosophers of the 18th century worked in opposition to the then existing social and political system. Rousseau, Diderot, Montesquieu - they all protested against the domestic order. Criticism could take a variety of forms: atheism, idealization of the past (the republican traditions of antiquity were praised), etc.

The 35-volume Encyclopedia became a unique phenomenon of the culture of the Enlightenment. It was composed of the main thinkers of the “Age of Reason”. The inspirer and editor-in-chief of this epoch-making publication was Julien La Mettrie, Claude Helvetius and other outstanding intellectuals of the 18th century who contributed to individual volumes.

Montesquieu sharply criticized the arbitrariness and despotism of the authorities. Today he is rightly considered the founder of bourgeois liberalism. Voltaire became an example of outstanding wit and talent. He was the author of satirical poems, philosophical novels, and political treatises. Twice the thinker went to prison, and even more times he had to go on the run. It was Voltaire who created the fashion for freethinking and skepticism.

German Enlightenment

German culture of the 18th century existed in conditions of political fragmentation of the country. Progressive minds advocated the rejection of feudal remnants and national unity. Unlike French philosophers, German thinkers were cautious about issues related to the church.

Like the Russian culture of the Enlightenment, Prussian culture was formed with the direct participation of an autocratic monarch (in Russia it was Catherine II, in Prussia it was Frederick the Great). The head of state strongly supported the progressive ideals of his time, although he did not renounce his unlimited power. This system was called “enlightened absolutism.”

The main Enlightenment figure in Germany in the 18th century was Immanuel Kant. In 1781 he published the fundamental work “Critique of Pure Reason”. The philosopher developed a new theory of knowledge and studied the capabilities of human intelligence. It was he who substantiated the methods of struggle and legal forms of changing the social and state system, excluding gross violence. Kant made a significant contribution to the creation of the theory of the rule of law.